Effect of sleep quality on perceived academic performance

Effect of sleep quality on perceived academic performance Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to study the impact of the quality of sleep of student of premier MBA institutes on their perceived academic performance. This study also aims to establish whether the burnout faced by students behaves as a mediator in the relationship between the sleep quality and the perceived academic performance. Finally, keeping work experience as a moderator, we also aim to study whether students with more than 12 months of work experience show any difference in the results when compared to those with less than 12 months experience. Design/methodology/approach: A questionnaire was designed using 3 pre-existing scales to measure Sleep Quality, Burnout and Perceived Academic Performance. This questionnaire was floated in the electronic format to students of XLRI Jamshedpur and other schools of business in India. A total of 163 students responded with completely filled in surveys. Findings: The study concluded that the Sleep Quality does not have a direct impact on the Perceived Academic Performance in the case of students without work-experience. However, the indirect effect is significant, and Sleep Quality affects Burnout, which in turn has an impact on Perceived Academic Performance. Research limitations/implications: One of the major limitations of the study was that majority of the respondents were from only one Business-school, viz. XLRI Jamshedpur. In order to generalize the result across all B-school students of India, more participants from other B-schools need to be contacted. Also, while the Academic Confidence Scale, used to measure perceived academic performance, is better than using only grades, a better scale needs to be developed to thoroughly measure the performance of students not only in examinations but also in class through learning capacity, etc. Originality/value: Previous studies have identified that there is certainly an impact of duration and quality of sleep on the academic performance of high-school (and younger) students, as well as on the organisational performance of professionals. However, no study has previously been conducted for students of MBA courses. Keywords: Sleep Quality, Perceived Academic Performance, Burnout, Exhaustion Paper Type: Research Introduction As the corporate world begins to get more competitive, greater demands are made by organisations from employees and even more from those in managerial capacities. These demands are met by working professionals who modify their lifestyles in order to dedicate more time and effort towards achieving the high standards set by a demanding corporate world. This includes habits such as skipping breakfast and sleeping less. Such characteristics are observed also among B-school students who live on or near campus. Apart from low duration of sleep, many students also have irregular sleeping patterns and their quality of sleep is often not very high due to disturbances and other reasons. This irregular sleep pattern and low quality of sleep result in a drop in perceived academic performance of students. The high levels of academic rigour encouraged by the premier B-schools of India result in a high requirement of hard work and a very large number of hours per week to be put into coursework. A continued high level of demand can result in students feeling a sense of burning out-which is defined by a drop in motivation levels to work, mental exhaustion and sometimes also leads to students questioning their courses and their own abilities. Irregular and poor quality sleep is likely to result in a quicker onset of burnout among students. It is to be expected that once students start burning out, their performance in class and their confidence in their academic capabilities begin to suffer. Prior studies have observed and established the effect of sleep quality on students of high-school and of younger ages. Some studies have also been carried out on students of under-graduate courses. However, our study is primarily aimed at observing these effects on students of Business schools only. We are also aiming to establish whether or not the burnout level of a student is a significant mediator on the effect of sleep quality on perceived academic performance. Research background and hypotheses Sleep Quality Sleep is a complex phenomenon to measure. Sleep quantity is considered universally as a good measure to evaluate this phenomenon but results indicate that for studies, researchers should use sleep quality than sleep quantity which includes many other factors other than just the duration of sleep (Vail-Smith et al, 2009). In some studies, sleep quality was measured by factors such as sleep environment, noise disturbances, other sleep accessories (Triangle Business Journal, 2010). Many other studies measured sleep by collecting information regarding not just the number of hours of sleep but also time awake in the middle of the night, time taken to fall asleep related factors (Business Wire, 2009) To suit our requirement for measuring sleep quality, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (Sleep Medicine Index, 2010) was used. This index includes not only the number of hours of sleep but also any disturbances in sleep, sleeping waking up time, and the subsequent effects of the sleep pattern on the subsequent days functioning. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) (Buysse et al. 1989a) helps to discriminate between good and poor sleepers. The different dimensions covered by this index are Subjective Sleep Quality, Sleep Latency, Sleep Duration, Habitual Sleep Efficiency, Sleep Disturbances, Use of Sleep Medications, and Daytime Dysfunction. It is comprises of 19 self-rated questions 5 questions that are by a roommate. In the end it generates seven scores by summing up the component scores of the seven components. For our research purpose, we have taken only the 19 self-rated questions only since in the B-School context many students stay in single rooms in hostels. Hence, including the other 5 questions will not aid in the research. For the scale items, see Appendix 1. Burnout No doubt the sleep quality affects the perceived academic performance but it alone will keep the research restricted. Hence, a mediating variable is used to explain the whole effect. So burnout is used as a mediator here. Burnout is a concept that is used mainly in the work related context. It is defined as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, cynicism or depersonalization, and reduced personal efficacy. Common symptoms of burnout are stress, exhaustion, fatigue, lack of concentration etc. As stated above, usually burnout is used in work related context especially for executives, CEOs etc (Anonymous, 2002); however, we have extended its usage for B-School students as well. Since a B-School environment demands meeting deadlines, toiling hard working for long hours- all of which are reasons that can cause burnout. To measure Burnout, School Burnout Inventory (SBI) is used. This inventory comprises of three dimensions- exhaustion, cynicism towards meaning of school sense of inadequacy. Out of these, only first two namely, exhaustion cynicism are used in our research; inadequacy is not measured since it is not applicable for our sample students. For the scale items, see Appendix 2. Perceived Academic Performance Instead of taking the academic Grade point as a measure of the academic performance of a student, we took the perceived academic performance as an effective construct to measure the capability of a student. Since academic performance means understanding, assimilating reproducing the teachings not getting good grades alone. This has been cited as the militation in many studies before. According to researchers, learning satisfaction from the course sheds more light on the topic of academic performance. (Garger et al, 2010) To measure the perceived Academic Performance for the B-School student, Academic Confidence Scale (ACS) is used. This scale has six factors namely, studying, understanding, verbalizing, clarifying, attendance grades. Out of these, verbalizing clarifying are not very relevant variables in a B-School context since these are basic skills which are expected from all students of B-schools. For the scale items, see Appendix 3. Work Experience as Moderator Research has been done linking sleep deprivation with burnout in corporate environment. The continuous stress that people in jobs feel is more especially at the higher levels in the organization (Anonymous, 2002). This continuous exposure to the high levels of stress gives students with more than 12 months of work experience more ability to handle low quality sleep and therefore, it should not affect their performance. Sleep Quality Burnout Burnout has a variety of causes and symptoms that erode the mental, emotional and spiritual quality of life. (Francis, 2006) Among other symptoms, sleep quality is considered as one of the major symptoms of burnout in humans. During sleep our body releases hormones etc which are used to repair damaged cells etc. Lack of sleep stops this process and hence leads to irritation, frustration, fatigue-all symptoms of burnout (Francis, 2006). Human body has a natural way of relieving stress through sleep (Spencer, 1987). Research has been done linking sleep deprivation with burnout in medical students (Dyrbye et al, 2006) corporate (Anonymous, 2002) but no such study has been done in B-School students. This research gap has been identified used in our model. Burnout and Perceived Academic Performance Students who feel energetic feel the vigour to perform give good academic results compared to their counterparts (Schaufeli et al, 2002). Burnout levels of students indicated by stress, fatigue etc cause low performance by students in academics this result is true not just for people of a particular nationality but has been proved for people of many countries (Schaufeli et al, 2002). This result can be used here as well for linking the burnout to academic performance of B-School students. Since in a B-School environment, there is a high stress work load which causes burnout to a large extend hence can affect the academic performance of the students. Sleep Quality and Perceived Academic Performance In the past, extensive research has been done in the area of sleep affecting academic performance. Most of the students who complained about sleep difficulties showed a drop in the performance compared to the others. (Anonymous, 2008). Regular proper sleep patterns among others are healthy habits which affect the grades a student gets. (Paul et al, 2008). Especially in a college environment, the students who take enough sleep, tend to score better than the others who sleep less. (France. 2009). Sleep patterns of college students are unique since it is influenced by work-related stress, parties, communal living arrangements etc. (Vail-Smith, 2009) This is an interesting observation as peoples attitude here are determined, to a large extent, by the group dynamics. Methods Sample The targeted sample consisted of B-school students studying in a 2-year full-time Post-Graduate course in MBA. Most of the respondents were students of the first year who have spent approximately 9 months in the course. However, some students of the second year have also been contacted to take their responses. The questionnaire, consisting of 33 items, was hosted online on Google Documents and the link to the form was sent personally to students via email and instant messages. The form contained no personal information that could be used to identify the respondents. In total, 163 respondents filled in the questionnaire. Of these, it is estimated that 131 respondents are from among the first and second year students of XLRI Jamshedpur. The remaining 32 respondents are from other institutes across India. Measures Our model consists of 3 constructs and one moderator as given below. The constructs were measured using modified versions of pre-existing scales as indicated below. Figure 1: Model Sleep Quality Work Experience Burnout Academic Confidence Sleep Quality Sleep Quality was measured using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a 24-item scale that consists of various types of questions ranging from subjective questions to multiple-choice questions, as well as some questions based loosely on the Likert Scale. Of the 24 items present on the PSQI, we have modified the scale to exclude the last 6 items (refer Appendix 1), since these are not applicable to B-school students. These questions are to be answered if the respondent generally sleeps with a partner or room-mate, and if the room-mate has observed any irregular sleeping patterns. Burnout Burnout has been measured by the School Burnout Inventory, developed by Salmela-Aro et al (Salmela-Aro,K. et al, 2009). This inventory was developed to be used on higher secondary school students and contains 9 items that measure burnout on 3 dimensions-exhaustion due to coursework, cynicism towards school and inadequacy at performing well at school. Of these dimensions, we have chosen to study only exhaustion and cynicism, since inadequacy is not applicable to students of the age of MBA students. Therefore, the scale has been modified to include only 7 questions in the final questionnaire (refer Appendix 2). Perceived Academic Performance The perceived academic performance is measured by using the Academic Confidence Scale (ACS) (Sander, P. Sanders, L., 2003). This scale consists of 24 items based on 5-point Likert scale. The questions measure Academic Confidence in 6 dimensions-Studying, Understanding, Attendance, Grades, Verbalizing, Clarifying. Of these 6 dimensions, the last 2 are not applicable for students of B-schools, since it is assumed that these students would show an accomplished level of verbalizing and clarifying aptitude. Of the remaining questions, we have chosen 8 items (Appendix 3) that display the best coefficients for the remaining 4 dimensions. Analysis The analysis is carried out for both Moderator Analysis and Mediator Analysis. For types of analysis, we are using the four-step method developed by Baron and Kenny (Baron, R.M. Kenny, D.A., 1986). For Moderator Analysis, we initially select all cases for which the student has work experience greater than 12 months and carry out the analysis. Similarly, the same is carried out for students having greater than 12 months of work experience. Finally, all cases are taken to carry out the Mediation Analysis. In order to measure the significance of mediation analysis, the Sobel Test is carried out as well. Results Sleep Quality and Burnout The regression analysis was carried out to find out the relationship between sleep quality burnout. It was carried out for both the values of the bi-variate moderator. Relationship Significance Unstandardised coefficient Standardised coefficient R Square Work experience 0.000 0.453 0.405 0.164 Work experience > 12 m 0 0.428 0.444 0.197 Overall 0 0.461 0.442 0.195 Table 1: Results for Sleep quality Burnout As we can see from the above table, the relation is significant in all the three cases the impact is also almost the same. From the values of beta and B, we can interpret that for every B-School student a poor sleep quality leads to increase in burnout. This could be attributed to the fact that burnout is a physical a mental condition which is same for the all the human beings. Every human being needs sleep to recover energy though the time duration of the requirement may be different. But a minimum amount of sleep is necessary for all. Burnout and Perceived Academic Performance The regression analysis was carried out to find out the relationship between burnout and academic performance. It was carried out for both the values of the bi-variate moderator. Relationship Significance Unstandardised coefficient Standardised coefficient R Square Work experience 0.001 -0.53 -0.355 0.126 Work experience > 12 m 0.002 -0.541 -0.355 0.126 Overall 0 -0.527 -0.353 0.125 Table 2: Results for Burnout Perceived academic Performance As we can see, here also burnout level increase leads to a decrease in the perceived academic performance of an individual. This shows that a persons perceived academic performance is affected by the burnout level. This in turn proves the hypothesis stated and reinforces the previous researches done on the same subject. Sleep Quality and Perceived Academic Performance The regression analysis was carried out to find out the relationship between sleep quality perceived academic performance. It was carried out for both the values of the bi-variate moderator. Relationship Significance Unstandardised coefficient Standardised coefficient R Square Work experience 0.883 -0.040 -0.024 0.001 Work experience >12 m 0.009 -0.443 -0.302 0.091 Overall 0.081 -0.213 -0.137 0.019 Table 3: Results for Sleep quality Perceived Academic Performance As we can see that the significance level is within the confidence interval only for the values with work experience > 12 months. The likely reason for this can be that people with work experience are used to maintaining high pressures on the job. Working round the clock, meeting deadlines etc are a part of their lives and they dont feel much difference when they enter a B-School. In contrast to this, freshers (college graduates) are not accustomed to a hectic schedule. The model with the results is shown below: Figure 2: Model with the moderator values Values on the left hand side are values for work experience less than 12 months; Values on the right hand side are values for work experience more than 12 months *symbolises that the result is significant Discussions and Implications As we can see, that the total effect is significant but is attributed to the indirect effect only and not to the direct effect. Also, the net magnitude of the total effect is very less. The factors that can be attributed to these results can be as follows. Over a period of time, human body adapts itself to any routine. Here the timing of our research plays an important role. Most of our respondents are 1st year MBA students who have spent almost nine months in a B-School. Nine months is a long enough time for the human body to adapt to such any change in routine. Had this research been conducted when the students entered the B-School, results might have been different The age group of all the respondents is between 20 to 30 years. In this age group predominantly, the human body has the energy, stamina the will to withstand any adversities in the external environment. If such a study is conducted in people of a different age group, their body might not have the vigour and will to withstand harsh environment circumstances Also, as we saw that the direct relationship between sleep quality perceived academic performance is significant only in the case of people having work experience more than 12 months. As we know, across B-Schools in India, number of students with prior work experience is less compared to the others. Hence, had the research been conducted for B-Schools overseas as well, the results might have been different with a significant direct effect as well. This research highlights the relationship between poor sleep quality burnout of students in B-Schools. This further leads to a dip in their perceived academic performance. To avoid this, B-school administration should consider preparing the schedule or curriculum of the academic year in such a way that the students dont need to compromise on their sleep quality. This will help them maintain attentiveness, concentration, etc. this in turn will help them improve their perceived academic performance. Also, the hectic life-style in a B-school takes its toll on mental health of the students by making them cynical in their approach towards their courses/academics due to burnout. Limitations Following are the limitations we encountered during this research study: Sample size not large enough: Although, responses from 163 respondents were collected but, still larger number of respondents if covered would lend more accuracy to the research findings. Also, majority of the respondents (about 80%) are XLRI students, research findings could be much more accurate if we can collect more responses from other B-school students. Timing of the survey: Since, after spending about 9-10 months in a B-school environment, students become habitual to this kind of a life style, so the impact of sleep quality on burnout or their perceived academic performance subsides. Had this research been conducted when the students would have just entered the B-school, responses would have been more impactful. Age group of the respondents: Since, most of the students in a B-school are in the age group of 20 to 30 years, they have much more will power their capabilties in terms of adapting to the needs of the environment are much more. Thus, they easily adopt to the lifestyle requirements of a B-school. Homogeneous group: These responses are collected from the respondents belonging to the same race culture, thus, the group is homogeneous. Responses should also be collected from the students of foreign B-schools who belong to different race, culture, religon ethnicity then, the findings would be far more accurate diverse. Group Dynamics: Group Dynamics play a very important role in influencing the behaviour of B-school students. Since, almost everybody sleeps late in the night, so it becomes a norm nobody feels that he/she is not getting enough sleep or he/she is being sleep deprived. Future Scope The scope of this research can be extended in future as follows: Increase the sample size to include students from other B-schools also, not only students from top B-schools. Also, students from foreign B-schools can be included in the sample. Similar research can be done for students who are not B-school students but, tend to follow similar life-style, like aspirants preparing for competitive entrance examinations. As already stated above, this research should include the responses of the students studying in foreign B-schools. Probably, then we will be able to make general statements about the characteristics of all B-school students. We need to measure the effect of Group dynamics also in our research study since group behaviour is known to influence the norms in the group. The timing of the research study is very important. Research should be conducted at the start of the B-school session for new admits who have not become habitual to B-school lifestyle. References Anas, B. (2009), Sleepless On Campus, McClatchy Tribune Business News. Training Development Anonymous (2002), To burnout and back: CEOs are top candidates for stress overload. Admit it or face the consequences, Profit. Toronto: Sep 2002. Vol. 21, Iss. 5; pg. 70 Anonymous (2008), Study Finds Lack of Sleep, Excessive Computer Screen Time, Stress and More Hurt College Students Grades; University of Minnesota study is the first to present data showing direct link between health-related behaviors and grades, PR Newswire. New York Baron, R.M. and Kenny, D.A. (1986), The moderator-mediator distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, Strategic, and statistical considerations, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 51, pp. 1173-82. Bower, B. (2002), Snooze Power, Science News.  Washington:  Vol.  161,  Iss.  22; pp. 341.  Alexandria Vol.  48,  Iss.  11;   pp 8 Business Wire (2009), First-of-Its-Kind Sleep Innovation Helps Consumers Measure and Manage Sleep Quality to Achieve a Better Nights Rest., , last accessed on 23-March-2010 Dyrbye, L.N., Thomas, M.R., Huntington, J.L., Lawson, K.L., Novotny, P.J., Sloan, J.A., Shanafelt, T.D. (2006), Academic Medicine: Volume 81 Issue 4 pp 374-384 France, K (2009), SWArticle: Sleepless on Campus, The Carletonian, 2009 Fall Issue 4, , last accessed on 23-March-2010 Francis, L. (2006), More on Burnout, Qualified Remodeler. Chicago: Apr 2006. Vol. 32, Iss. 4; pg. 22 Garger, J., Thomas, M., Jacques, P.H. (2010), Early antecedents to students expected performance, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol: 24, Iss 2, pp. 129 138 Paul, M., Panton, C., Marzigliano, N (2008), Do Students With Healthy Habits Perform Better In Their Academics? Allied Academies International Conference. Academy of Educational Leadership. Proceedings. Cullowhee:Vol. 13, Iss. 2; pp. 47-55 Salmela-Aro,K., Kiuru,N., Leskinen,E. Nurmi,J. (2009), School Burnout Inventory (SBI): Reliability and Validity, European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2009; Vol. 25(1): pp.48-57 Sander, P. And Sanders, L. (2003), Measuring confidence in academic study: A summary report, Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, No. 5-3 (1), pp.113-130 Schaufeli, W.B., Martà ­nez, I.M, Pinto, A.M., Salanova, M. Bakker, A.B. (2002), Burnout and Engagement in University Students: A Cross-National Study, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology; Vol 33; pp 464 Sleep Medicine Institute (2010), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, , last accessed on 23-March-2010 Sorohan and Gordon, E., (1994), To Sleep, Perchance To Learn, Training Development.  Alexandria:   Vol.  48,  Iss.  11;   pp. 8 Spencer, D. (1987), Spacing Out at Work May Help Ward Off Job Burnout, St. Louis Business Journal. Vol. 8, Iss. 5; Sec. 3. pg. 5C Triangle Business Journal (2010), Soft? Firm? When Choosing a Mattress, One Firmness Does Not Fit All, , last accessed on 23-March-2010 Vail-Smith, K., Felts, W.M. Becker, C. (2009), Relationship Between Sleep Quality And Health Risk Behaviors In Undergraduate College Students, College Student Journal, East Carolina University, Vol. 43 Issue 3, p924-930 Appendix 1 Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index INSTRUCTIONS: The following questions relate to your usual sleep habits during the past month only. Your answers should indicate the most accurate reply for the majority of days and nights in the past month. Please answer all questions. 1. During the past month, what time have you usually gone to bed at night? BED TIME ___________ 2. During the past month, how long (in minutes) has it usually taken you to fall asleep each night? NUMBER OF MINUTES ___________ 3. During the past month, what time have you usually gotten up in the morning? GETTING UP TIME ___________ 4. During the past month, how many hours of actual sleep did you get at night? (This may be different than the number of hours you spent in bed.) HOURS OF SLEEP PER NIGHT ___________ For each of the remaining questions, check the one best response. Please answer all questions. 5. During the past month, how often have you had trouble sleeping because you . . . a) Cannot get to sleep within 30 minutes Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ b) Wake up in the middle of the night or early morning Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ c) Have to get up to use the bathroom Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ d) Cannot breathe comfortably Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ e) Cough or snore loudly Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ f) Feel too cold Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ g) Feel too hot Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ h) Had bad dreams Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ i) Have pain Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ j) Other reason(s), please describe__________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ How often during the past month have you had trouble sleeping because of this? Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ 6. During the past month, how would you rate your sleep quality overall? Very good ___________ Fairly good ___________ Fairly bad ___________ Very bad ___________ 7. During the past month, how often have you taken medicine to help you sleep (prescribed or over the counter)? Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ 8. During the past month, how often have you had trouble staying awake while driving, eating meals, or engaging in social activity? Not during the past one month _____ Less than once a week _____ Once or twice a week _____ Three or more times a week _____ 9. During the past month, how much of a problem has it been for you to keep up enough enthusiasm to get things done? No problem at all __________

China’s Terra-Cotta Army

In March of 1974, while drilling a well, a work brigade of farmers discovered a subterranean chamber nearby the royal tomb of Qin Shi Huangdi, the first Emperor of China (Encyclopedia Britannica). The superstitious old women of the village believed that the digging would disturb the Earth God. Therefore, due to these spiritual beliefs, they did not report the discovery right away. Eventually, archeologists came to Xi’an in droves to study and extend the digs. This led to the uncovering of three vast pits to the east of the burial tomb. In these pits, chariots, weapons and over 7,000 terracotta soldiers and horses were unearthed (Roberts p. 25). After extensive research, historians and archeologists concluded these terracotta soldiers were buried there to protect Emperor Qin (pronounced Chin) and his underground kingdom in the afterlife. Ying Zheng was born in 260 BC. He was a member of the Qin Dynasty and ascended to the throne in 247 BC at the age of thirteen. The Qin rule became the most powerful during the Warring States Period, a hectic, brutal, and unsafe time in Chinese history where the seven states were at constant war with one another. After conquering the rival states, King Zheng, ruling over a now unified state he called China, renamed himself Qin Shi Huangdi, the First Emperor (Man p. 28). Under Emperor Qin’s rule, China, which is a derivative of his name, was ruled by strict law. He was a cruel ruler who readily killed or banished those who opposed him or his ideology. He is notorious for burning virtually all the books that remained from previous regimes and burnt over 460 alchemists because they failed to provide him a life prolonging elixir. After many attempts on his life were made, including one from his own mother, Emperor Qin ruled with a schizophrenic mind (China’ First Emperor). â€Å"It was perhaps his insatiable desire for security in an uncertain world that drove him on. † (Man p. 28) Emperor Qin undertook many projects in his organization of China. He is accredited for connecting existing farming walls to defend his kingdom from outside barbarians creating the first adaptation of the Great Wall of China. He constructed an extensive network of roads and canals for travel and trade throughout his empire. Perhaps the two key changes that ensured the unity of Chinese culture were the standardization of currency and the written script (China’s First Emperor). One of his projects was the construction of his mausoleum at Mount Li, which took 700,000 workers an estimated 11 years to finish. It is believed to contain a model of his empire and includes rivers of mercury and booby traps, as well as many buried treasures and sacrificial objects. It is speculated that in order to guard its secrets, the workers who constructed it were also entombed. This is said to be one of the last examples of mass human sacrifice in Chinese history. Although the location of the emperor’s tomb has long been known, it has yet to be excavated (Roberts p. 25). Another of his projects, which was unknown until the 1974 discovery, was the three vast pits containing the terracotta army. The first pit measures 252 yards long, 68 yards wide and 16 feet deep. There are over 6,000 terracotta warriors and horses, of which 1,000 have been unearthed. The soldiers were assembled from separately kiln-fired sections of terracotta; the lower halves of the bodies are made of solid terracotta clay and the upper halves are hollow. The warriors vary in height ranging from 5’8† to 6 1/2’ tall. They were given individually detailed faces which were believed to be based on the faces of the Emperor’s actual soldiers. However, it has since been proved that all the soldiers are based on ten basic designs (Travel China Guide). The figures are assembled into a well-organized battle array composed of the infantry and cavalry. The vanguard bowmen include 210 foot soldiers divided equally into three lines. The cavalry and war chariot follow close in line, forming the main body of the battle formation. The foot soldiers are alternated with the chariots drawn by horses, lined into 38 columns. On both the northern and southern sides of the war formation stand 180 warriors which serve as flank guards. The rear guards are on the western end, with two lines facing east and another facing west. Some soldiers are armed with battle robe, and some are equipped with armor. The war formation is elaborately set in a line and is poised as if prepared for battle at any moment (Travel China Guide). The second pit is the most spectacular of the three. The combat formations are more complex, and the units of armed soldiers are more complete. There are over 80 war chariots, about 1,300 terracotta warriors and horses, and thousands of bronze weapons. It is here where the terracotta general, the kneeling archer and the warrior with a saddled horse were discovered (Travel China Guide). The third pit is believed by experts to be the command center for all the groups in the other two pits. The unearthed artifacts include 68 terracotta warriors, four horses and one chariot all arranged in a unique layout. Upon entering the pit, there is a passageway where the 68 warrior figures stand orderly along the two sides (Travel China Guide). During the excavation and repair work on the terracotta warrior figures, experts discovered many names carved or printed on the bodies of these figures. So far 87 different names have been recognized. They were found hidden in such places as the hips or under the arms of the terracotta warrior statues. Further research has shown that these 87 people were the master craftsmen, and that these craftsmen had assistants of their own. In all, it is estimated that about a thousand people participated in the making of the terracotta warriors (Travel China Guide). The compound was declared a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site in 1987. After more than two decades of work on the site, archaeologists in the 1990’s anticipated that it would take many more years, perhaps several generations, to unearth the remainder of the tomb complex. In 1978, the former French president, Jacques Chirac visited the Museum of Qin Terracotta Warriors and Horses. He called the Qin warriors â€Å"the eighth wonder of the world†. From then on, the Qin terracotta warriors became famous all over the world. In the years since its discovery, the tomb of the terracotta warriors has become one of China's most important tourist destinations, drawing thousands of visitors to Xi'an each year (Encyclopedia Britannica). Emperor Qin’s terracotta army is a remarkable demonstration of the First Emperor's ambition to rule, not only in his lifetime but also in his afterlife.

Counselor Role in Special Education Essay

My perception of the school counselor’s role in special education is that it largely mirrors the role embodied for all students, but with some added considerations and collaborations for the special needs student. My understanding is that a school counselor should be available to all students for personal, ethical, academic, career, and social advice; to listen to a student’s point of view; to deal with any mental health issues that may arise for a student; to help a student prepare for transitions; to advocate for a student in a given situation, and to whatever degree possible, teach the student to advocate for himself. A counselor must be committed to helping all students reach their full potential; but for students with disabilities and other special needs, a school counselor needs to accomplish this in the face of extra challenges. These tasks and trials are not limited to those presented by the varying disabilities of a child, but include the demands of satisfying the administrative and legal requirements of a counselor serving students with special needs. Today’s school counselor is likely to be involved in a student’s individualized education program (IEP) when one is warranted. According to the Ohio Department of Education’s Office for Exceptional Children, at least one of the IEP team members needs to be an individual who has knowledge or special expertise regarding the child. This person is in addition to the child’s regular and special education teachers, a principal/assistant principal or other senior staff member, the parents, the school psychologist, and the child (if appropriate) required to participate on the team. The school counselor, at the discretion of the parent or the school district, may be included as a member of the IEP team if they have special insight regarding the child. A school counselor will work as part of a multidisciplinary team within the school and community in aligning and providing services for the special needs student. Without yet having been exposed to a practicum or internship experience as a school counselor, I perceive this piece of the workload to be potentially delicate and complex. A parent may have a viewpoint divergent from that which is covered in the Evaluation Team Report (ETR), resulting in an extended identification process. School staff members may have contrasting opinions as to whether a child is in need of special education and an IEP, or just accommodations covered under a 504 Plan. The bottom line is that the identification team must work collaboratively, with a lack of ego, in assessing and determining what measures are in the best interests of helping the child to be successful in school. It seems that the most difficult aspect of a school counselor’s job is to find a balance in managing so many responsibilities in each given day. Responding to the unique challenges of special needs students can both intensify and complement the workload. I think much can be gained professionally, personally, and emotionally by embracing that responsibility. A good counselor should teach the special education students attending her school about resiliency, inner strength, positive identity, and a sense of purpose. In the general terms of the professional school counselor’s role, I believe that the most valuable services to be provided in the special education realm are: †¢ Individual Student Planning – communicate high expectations and help disabled students establish personal goals for each school year and their future success. Familiarize oneself with the varying learning styles of the students who have disabilities, and work consultatively with teachers to improve their performance behaviorally and academically. Be a staunch advocate for these students and their post-secondary options; help create opportunities for them. †¢ Responsive Services – implement prevention and/or intervention activities like individual and group counseling, provide referrals, facilitate better peer relations, and advocate for them. Conduct needs assessments to identify potential systematic, programmatic, and attitudinal areas for change in order to create positive environments for their learning. Assist teachers in staying on top of 504 and IEP accommodations/interventions, being prepared to troubleshoot if certain measures are not enabling student to perform optimally. †¢ School Guidance Curriculum – developing and delivering a curriculum of structured lessons to help each identified student achieve desired social and academic outcomes. A counselor could implement a student development curriculum aimed to improve typical students’ understanding of and sensitivity to their special needs’ peers.

The Social Exchange Theory in Interpersonal Relationships

Interpersonal communication is a form of communication that takes place between two people who have an established relationship. There are many different levels of interpersonal communication and theories of interpersonal communication. One of the theories that is used to explain changes in social behavior is the social exchange theory. The social exchange theory proposes that social behavior is the result of an exchange process between two people. The basic concept of the exchange theory is that it emphasizes the cost between the interactions of people and their social environment. Exchange theory attempts to explain human behavior under the content of a balanced-equal ratio within the distribution of giving and receiving. At the heart†¦show more content†¦These types of exchanges are rather strong in real life and tend to create enduring links. Many of these social exchanges are readily recognized and described by those taking part in them through speech. For instance, the reference to such words as indebted, owe, among others, points to the exchanges that take place in real life. The social exchange theory controls our behavior as well as the reinforcement for our actions because before we act in most circumstances, we will weigh the rewards and costs of the behaviors. The behavior that we use is the one believed to produce the highest reward and the lowest cost. What we may perceive to be acceptable or unacceptable in the relationship is our comparison level that we weigh the rewards and costs against. The comparison level of alternatives is when we weigh the rewards and costs relative to the perceived alternatives. People also have a comparison level for the alternative relationships. With a high comparison level, we may believe the world is full of lovely people just waiting to meet us. When this level is low, we may stay in a high-cost relationship simply because we believe we could not find any better elsewhere. Molm (1991) shows that in recent research on individual judgments losses have a greater effect on people then gains. Social exchange according to Blau (1964) can be observed everywhere once we are sensitizedShow MoreRelatedInterpersonal Communication : Social Exchange Theory1581 Words   |  7 PagesInterpersonal Communication: Social Exchange Theory Interpersonal communication can be described as communication that occurs between two or more individuals. While communication can be either verbal, nonverbal, or written, interpersonal communication is more commonly practiced through face to face, verbal communication (Burton, 2011). The interpersonal communication process begins with a â€Å"sender†, which is the person that is communicating a message to another person. The â€Å"receiver† is the personRead MoreInterpersonal Communication On A Daily Base983 Words   |  4 PagesSociety sees interpersonal communication on a daily base. The question might be what is interpersonal communication, is there conflict, and where we experience it. Communication skills are developed to enhance or improve with the increased knowledge and practice. Today’s world with various forms of communication is ideal to have a superb interpersonal skill. Tough Interpersonal communication is an exchange of information between two or more people. Furthermore, the uncertainty theory comes from theRead MoreSocial Exchange Theory1512 Words   |  7 PagesThe Social Exchange Theory was created by researchers John W. Thibaut and Harold H. Kelley, was an attempt to everyday interpersonal relationships. This theory, with backgrounds in sociology and economics, appeals to so many because of it simple answers to human interaction and intentions. The social exchange theory is very rational and considers humans to be rational in every thought they make. It examines human behavior through costs and benefits of being in a particular relationship. The theoryRead MoreThe Effects Of Inappropriate Interpersonal Communication On Health And Social Care Settings1210 Words   |  5 Pagesmethods of dealing with inappropriate interpersonal communication between individuals in health and social care settings. I am reviewing the methods how to use interpersonal communication to deal with individuals in health and social care settings. Interpersonal communication is defined as the verbal and non-verbal interaction between two interdependent people (occasionally more). This comparatively is an easy definition suggests a variety of properties. Interpersonal communication process by replacingRead MoreInterpersonal Relationships And Its Effects On The Family And Community822 Words   |  4 Pagesneed for interpersonal relationships including intimate, business, and family relationships, and friendship. The topic of interpersonal relationships has been an area of concern for many disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, and psychology. Academicians aim to discover the combination of factors that sustain or hinder interpersonal relations and why people need them. In this quest, many theories, concepts, and axioms have been proposed to explain the complex notion of interpersonal relationships Read MoreSocial Exchange Theory Essay726 Words   |  3 PagesMrs. Garcia SP 200 A 6 November 2017 Social Exchange Theory The Social Exchange Theory was formally advanced in the late 1950s and early 1960s in the work of the sociologists George Homans (1961) and Peter Blau (1964) and the work of social psychologists John Thibaut and Harold Kelley (1959) (Social Exchange Theory). Social Exchange Theory would be classified as a psychological theory; which suggests that humans will make decisions in their relationships based on the recognized benefits and costsRead MoreThe Social Penetration Theory the Uncertain Reduction Theory Implications on the Sales Process1334 Words   |  6 PagesUncertainty reduction theory This theory comes to explain the uncertainty among people who communicate with each other and how different types of communication will help to reduce the uncertainty. As a starting point, the developers of this theory (Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese) stated that uncertainty is an unpleasant feeling, which people prefer to avoid as much as they can. Every person has been confronted with the feeling of uncertainty, rather if it was when arriving to new a destinationRead MoreThe Effects of Facebook Communication on Social Penetration Theory1456 Words   |  6 Pages The Effects of Facebook Communication on Social Penetration Theory This paper examines a possible study to measure how CMC -- specifically Facebook communication -- is changing and evolving social penetration theory (Altman Taylor, 1973). More specifically, the surveys are designed to determine if self-disclosure is happening more quickly in Facebook relationships. Altman and Taylor examine the stages of self-disclosure in social penetration theory and this study will determine if the linesRead MoreThe Impact Of Social Media On Interpersonal Relationships1100 Words   |  5 PagesIn order to understand the impact that social media and technology have had on human interpersonal relationships a perspective into the theories of interpersonal relations might be of help. First of all, the very basic definition of Interpersonal relationships are the social connections that we make with others. As human beings we have a multitude of interpersonal relationships; family, friends, love interests, marriage and fellow workers. These relationships can be short lived, casual or long lastingRead MoreInterpersonal Relationships Analysis1607 Words   |  7 PagesInterpersonal Relationships Analysis This comprehensive analysis determines the concepts, components, and elements of interpersonal relationships. The concept of attraction foundations shows four different stages of attraction beginning with social and interpersonal communication skills forming a bond between two people. The social environment promotes building of interpersonal relationships for both the professional and private environments. The unique exchanges between interpersonal relationships

Legalizing Gay Marriage Essay examples - 1290 Words

Most societies view homosexuality as something that is horribly wrong. People view sexual relations between like genders as disgusting. For thousands of years homosexuality has existed on this Earth, but the question is, what makes it so wrong? During my research I have yet to find a legitimate reason as to why homosexuality is so wrong. With homosexual relationships, comes the question about homosexual marriage. Should gay marriage become legal in all fifty United States, or should it stay illegal in some states and remain legal in others? Most of society’s issues and controversies come forth when subjects like religion, the home life, and values are discussed. The real question is who is society to judge someone, who doesn’t care about†¦show more content†¦This raises my question, why can’t they marry one another, and are we still in discriminatory times. Politically speaking, legalizing gay marriage should have never been an issue. Do we have a contra dicting society? How is that we are all supposed to be equal and have equal opportunities without race, gender, religion, etc restricting us, and still view gays and lesbians as inferior to the ‘normal’ heterosexual? Whoever said being heterosexual was considered ‘normal’? It is not okay for gays to pay taxes that help Social Security, Medicare, and other benefits, when they can’t get what they for from our government. This actually takes away from human right. Everyone should have the right to marry the person that they love and cherish no matter their sexual orientation. Considering the fact that we live in a Democracy, this is very unfair. People argue that most Americans look at marriage as a religious ceremony. Religious individuals and groups feel that they will become at risk of having to violate their beliefs by being forced to marry same-sex couples (Robinson). I am a Christian and I view religion as a belief. If someone has to marry a gay c ouple, they are strictly doing their job, so therefore the individual technically is not violating their religion. The individuals that are getting married are violating their religion, but they can take that up with their higher power, that is, ifShow MoreRelatedLegalizing Gay Marriage Essays800 Words   |  4 PagesLegalizing Gay Marriage The battle over Gay marriage in the United States reached a fever pitch during the presidential election of 2004. The issue vaulted into prominence when the Democratic mayor of San Francisco flouted state law and performed marriage ceremonies for Gay couples. Conservatives claim that the issue catapulted them into power by motivating fundamentalist Christian voters to turnout in order to defeat anti-gay-marriage amendments in eleven states, includingRead MoreThe Controversy Of Legalizing Gay Marriage834 Words   |  4 Pageswhen they did not raise the drinking age. By pressuring, or as some say punishing, the federal government was able to use their authority to force Louisiana to coincide with the rest of the nation. More recently states are slowly but surely legalizing Gay Marriage. This is also an example of how slowly individual states are acknowledging the authority the federal government holds. In northern Belgium, citizens demanded for the government to make changes regarding the countries waste disposal practicesRead MoreArguments for Legalizing Gay Marriages Essays719 Words   |  3 PagesHomosexual Marriage Since 1971 when the first same sex couple Richard John Baker and James Michael McConnell applied for a marriage license and were denied in the Baker vs. Nelson ruling, America has been forced to debate whether homosexuals should be allowed to be married even though they are not the classical definition of a couple. There are many opinions about this subject from government officials, religious leaders and even the president of the United States. Homosexuals should be allowedRead MoreLegalizing Same Sex Marriage Is Not The End Of The Fight For Equal Gay Rights1801 Words   |  8 Pagesall state-level bans against same-sex marriage unconstitutional, legalizing same-sex marriage all over the nation. While this ruling was a huge victory for the gay rights movement, it was not the end of the fight for equal gay rights. In fact, many gay people are still fighting for adoption rights, job safety, and government protections from abuse and segregation. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to find solutions for a significant social issue such as gay rights when both sides of the debate areRead MoreSame-Sex Marriage Issues Controversies Essay example1180 Words   |  5 Pagesnamed gay marriage â€Å"one of the key struggles of our time†. According to the website â€Å"ProCon.org† as of January 6th 2014, 17 states have taken the plunge and legalized same-sex marriage. Marriage is â€Å"one of the basic civil rights of man†. Yet, we are still waiting on 66% of our nation to do the right thing and legalize gay marriage. The ban on gay marriage has deprived gay, lesbian, and bisexuals of many benefits that come with being married. Also, it has been proved that banning gay marriage createdRead MoreRedefining Marriage in Our Country1390 Words   |  6 PagesStates. Gay marriage will have an effect on the country, and the people need to decide whether it will be a positive or negative outcome. â€Å"When you talk about redefining marriage, youre reall y talking about an overthrow of this natural order or natural law, because marriage is something that predates government. So this is a big deal, a once-in-a-lifetime debate about whether to overturn the natural order upon which our rights are based† (Masci 1). The societal risks of legalizing gay marriage far outweighRead MoreShould Gay Marriage Be Legal?778 Words   |  3 PagesShould Gay Marriage Be Legal? â€Å"†¦I now pronounce you husband and wife†¦Ã¢â‚¬  One would normally hear this when attending a wedding. In tradition marriage has been between one male and one female who love each other. But how would one feel if they heard â€Å"I now pronounce you groom and groom† or how about â€Å"†¦bride and bride...†? In the last 50 years the number of same-sex couples has increased. The on-going argument between the government and the people is â€Å"Should gay marriage be legal?† Although some sayRead MoreGay Marriage Essay1744 Words   |  7 Pages 02/02/2012 Legalizing same-sex marriage has been a debate going on for quite some time. The recognition of such marriages is a civil rights, political, social, moral, and religious issue in many nations. Since 2001, ten countries have begun allowing same-sex couples to marry nationwide. In the United States the federal government does not recognize same-sex marriage, but such marriages are recognized by some individual states. Proposition 8 in NovemberRead MoreEssay about Lets Legalize Gay Marriage872 Words   |  4 PagesLet’s Legalize Gay Marriage Gay marriage is a right. Heterosexual couples are allowed to enjoy all the marriage benefits, so why shouldn’t same-sex couples be able to? Why should other people be able to choose who marries who? If a man and a woman get married, no one seems to care. Gay marriage should be legal because it’s an issue of equal rights, it would save society money, and it will increase the chances for foster children to be adopted into loving families. Same-sex marriage is an issueRead MoreThe Legalization Of Gay Marriage1411 Words   |  6 PagesAbstract The legalization of gay marriages is one of the most controversial issues throughout particularly in modern life. This paper, based on secondary research, arguing for legalizing same-sex marriage through specific analysis of its positive influences. In particular, there are two main benefits regarding society as well as economy. The finds of the research indicate that gays or lesbians are completely an important part of society. Therefore, they must have the rights to live and marry legally

Stranger And Fiction By Harold Crick - 964 Words

Harold Crick in Stranger Than Fiction is a man who starts and ends every day the same way for twelve years. He starts off each day by brushing his teeth seventy-six times. He leaves for the bus at the same time each day calculating his steps. However, Harold was brushing his teeth on an average Wednesday and he heard a voice. He did not know where the voice was coming from; eventually, he concluded the voice was a narrator in his head. The voice in Harold’s head changed his life forever. The voice is narrating every aspect of his life, until she says he is going to die. Harold now realizes that he is a main character of a book. He knows that if the narrator wants him to die, he will because everything else she says is true. Harold reflects on the way he has been living his life. Harold gets up and follows the same routine every day; it is obvious he is a bit obsessive compulsive. He notices that the way he has been living his life is boring. Harold realizes he doesn’t want to live like this anymore and is going to find out whom the narrator is. Harold breaks out of his daily routine to track down the narrator. He did not miss a day of work for twelve years and now is taking time off to get to the bottom of this. Harold is walking without counting his steps and no longer lives in solitude. Instead of living at home, Harold is living with a friend. He spends every day meeting with the professor trying to figure out who is narrating his life. In the meantime, he is doingShow MoreRelatedThe True Meaning Of Courage1527 Words   |  7 Pageskind of courage is the courage which both Harold Crick in Stranger Than Fiction and Jean Louise â€Å"Scout† Finch in To Kill A Mockingbird. In Stranger Than Fiction, an IRS agent, Harold Crick, with a monotonous life learns that you must not only survive, but you must truly live. This lesson is taught through a series of events that lead to his breaking out of his shell and truly living his life. The eve nts are preliminarily put into action through Harold hearing the voice of the author of a book aboutRead MoreAnalysis Of The Movie Stranger By Harold Crick1409 Words   |  6 PagesHarold Crick is an IRS auditor who lives an extremely predictable lifestyle dictated by routine and numbers. In the beginning of the film â€Å"Stranger than Fiction† Harold is depicted as boring, routine, and shows signs of having Obsessive Compulsive Disorder with his endless counting of everything he sees. He lives his life to the minimum as he has no wife, social life, no real friends, and in fact, his wristwatch seems to be his only friend as he depends on timing everything down to the second, toRead MoreHow Do Individuals Manage Their Unavoidable Fate By Using The Way2201 Words   |  9 Pagesdefinitely gained from film Stranger Than Fiction which has contained masses of topics consisting of love (romance), human instinct, critic of actual international, all of these dramatic (cinematic) aspects can be associated with our lives within the actual existence that s complete of adversities specially originated from relationship among people. character development Harold Crick: Harold Crick is first delivered to the viewer as a man of order. barely OCD, Harold brushes his teeth a positiveRead MoreReview Of The Movie Stranger 904 Words   |  4 Pagesaudience laugh. The movie Stranger Than Fiction uses comedy constantly during the course of the movie. The movie is about a man named Harold Crick that is living an ordinary life as an IRS Auditor. He begins to hear a narrator narrate his entire life and his future. He then goes crazy and gets assigned to audit a baker. The baker, Ana Pascal, starts to hate Harold because of his job but soon falls in love with him throughout this funny and sort of romantic movie. Harold finds out he is going to dieRead MoreNot in Control of Our Own Destiny: The Movie Stranger than Fiction 1043 Words   |  5 Pagesthe characters in acquiring better attitudes towards life. In the film Stranger than Fiction written by Zach Helm, turning points are used this way through Harold Crick. Harold’s realization of being powerle ss to avoid his fateful death provides a turning point that induces Harold’s transformation into a more emotional and passionate individual who lives every minute of his life to the fullest. The turning point is when Harold realizes he cannot avoid his fateful death after his apartment is beingRead MoreThe Book Night By Elie Wiesel4140 Words   |  17 Pagesfor not only himself, but for his father. The story Of Mice and Men where Lennie takes care of George even though he, (George), held him back from some of his aspirations that he had been striving towards for many years. And Harold Crick in the film Stranger than Fiction who put himself before the bus to save a child’s life along with Karen Eiffel changing her writing style to better other people’s lives. The autobiography Night by Elie Wiesel is the story of how Elie as a teenage boy hadRead MoreThe Pursuit Of Happiness By Aristotle2455 Words   |  10 Pagesfight back against Christof and find happiness. In the movie, Stranger than fiction, directed by Marc Forster, Harold Crick lives a strictly routine life guided by numbers, time and loneliness. As an IRS agent, Harold’s next audit is a baker named Ana Pascal. He starts to hear a voice that is narrating every move and feeling and it reveals that Harold will die soon. Harold seeks the help of Professor Jules Hilbert who advises Harold to change his lifestyle while he finds the narrator. Once he finds

Wireless Networks free essay sample

Compare and contrast 3G wireless networks to 4G networks in terms of: 3G and 4G wireless networks can be compared and contrasted by four areas of capabilities: Service and application, network architecture, data throughput and user perception. â€Å"Some examples of services offered by 3G wireless networks are CDMA2000 (also known as IMT MultiCarrier (IMTMC), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), and EDGE as well as a long list of others while 4G offer Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (Wimax2) and Long-Term Evolution (LTE- Advance). (Jamia Yant, 2012, April 26) 3G applications allows users the ability to stream video and audio, video conferencing as well as other multi-media applications within a mobile environment. 4G applications on the other hand offer gaming services, amended mobile web access, high definition mobile television, video conferencing, IP telephony and 3D television. The architecture between 3G and 4G are very different,3G mobile network uses a Wide Area Cell Based network with a circuit-switched subsystem and â€Å"3G networks rely on large satellite connections that are connected to telecommunications towers†. (Turban, E. nd Volonino, L, 2011) 3G allows users to make calls or open the internet, through signals which are sent to 3G tower antennas or cell sites. The data travels from the cell site to a central switching office by a wire-fiber optic network. The central switching office then connects the call or data request with the rest of the world according to; (Jamia Yant, 2012, April 26) 4G networks are an integration of wireless LAN and Wide Area. What are significant about 4G networks is they don’t use circuit-switched subsystems such as 3G networks. 4G is based on a purely packed based internet protocol (IP) system. Circuit switching is very old technology that has been used in telephone systems for a very long time and the downside of this technology is that it ties up the resources for as long as the connection is kept up. The efficiency of packaging switching allows the cell phone company to squeeze more conversations into the same bandwidth. 4G no- longer utilizes circuit switching for voice or video call, all information is passed around would be packet switched to enhance efficiency† (3G-vs- 4G Difference and Comparison, p3). The data throughput rate for 3G is up to 3. 1 mbps with a bandwidth of 5-20 MHz, while the data hroughput for 4G networks is 3-5 Mbps but is potentially estimated at a range of 100-300 Mbps with a bandwidth of 100 MHz or more. â€Å"Many users are happy with 3G wireless network service. It is readily available and has completive pricing which has enabled millions of users’ access to mobile technology in ways they never imagined possible. However, 4G networks have outages and complaints about coverage areas. The differences are there definitely between the two technologies but the users of today have only gotten a brief taste of the potential benefits of 4G servic e. The common users who only listen to music and watch the occasional video won’t be swayed to evolve, but the business mined tech savvy individual will be converting as fast as the technologies change†. (Jamia Yant, 2012, April 26) 4G LTE, 4G WiMax, and 4G WiBro Networks 4G wireless is the term used to describe the fourth-generation of wireless services. 4G technology is designed to deliver speed and there are three 4G systems that are commercially available LTE, WiMax, and WiBro. LTE or Long Term Evolution, has download speeds of 100 Mbps and can support upload speeds of 50 Mbps. User enjoy the fast download speeds, potentially better call quality, smoother streaming videos and faster webpage loading. Users have had issues with LTE outside of metropolitan areas because of fewer cell towers with 4G capabilities. LTE is designed to be backward compatible with lesser networks. The means if a mobile device is not in the range of a LTE network, it can resort back to a less network, such as 2. 5 or 3G. One of the benefits LTE is its service availability. Most cellular operators have adopted LTE as their 4G standard, which makes LTE one of the fastest growing networks available. Mobile phone providers calm that they have the widest 4G LTE network in an attempt to attract customers. For example, Verizon’s 4G LTE network coverage maps showed two-thirds of the U. S Population is covered by their service. While ATamp;T, calms their customers have access to the nations largest 4G network which covers over 285 million people. â€Å"WiMAX is an IP based, wireless broadband access technology that provides performance similar to 802. 11/Wi-Fi networks with the coverage and QOS (quality of service) of cellular networks. WiMAX is also an acronym meaning Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX). (WiMax. com, 2013) WiMax is capable of average download speeds of 3 to 6 Mbps and upload speeds of up to 1Mbps. Depending on the device and the service being used peak download speeds may reach 10 Mbps. WiMax network is similar to wireless networks, where the available bandwidth is divided among the users in certain radio sector. The problem that users hav e with this is when there are high volumes of users on the network; it can drop users in certain sectors. Like LTE, WiMax is also backward compatible with 3G technologies. WiMax service availbilty has is pros and it cons. WiMax is not dependent of cables to connect to each endpoint, do being able to deploy this network to a community or school campus can be done in a matter of a few days. While WiMax does work well on a localize area, the routers used for the connections do not have a wide range of coverage. The reality is WiMax network availability is only available in select locations. The WiBro network was created in South Korea to allow people to the internet from anywhere in the country. WiBro network has a download speed of 40. 32Mbps and â€Å"WiBro was designed to maintain a connection up to speed of 74 MPH. (WiBro, 2013) This allows users the ability to enjoy broadband Internet in cars or subways that run at high speeds. WiBro will soon become nearly obsolete with the advancement of the LTE network being available at lower cost because of the multiple service providers. 4G LTE Carrier Competition LTE’s security enrichments, minimal dormancy and extraordinary speediness above 3G merely denote that a consumer will have the ability to manipulate practically any online operation conceivable on a cellular phone. The limitations of equipment that have caused numerous operations to be restrained are now issues of the past. Consumers increase in service/carrier elections is one of the dynamic influences which initiate competition amongst carriers. Additionally, there are numerous other influences that are triggering added curiosity in cellular technology nowadays that is additionally propelling such aggressive rivalry. The accessibility of cellular bandwidth quickness is precisely contending with fixed line admittance technologies (Moscaritolo, 2012). Individuals want to be able to be mobile and on the go, all while maintaining the equivalent rate of connection velocity as they do at their household or workplace. As a direct result, individual output echelons rise intensely. Companies with inaccessible division offices want to implement a cellular empowered industry entrance as their primary WAN connections and this is an additional factor which must be considered when it comes to making their products better (Moscaritolo, 2012). Governments of regions that are not fully established desire to benefit from global amenities by utilizing technology to upsurge the admission of phones to areas that are incapable of being obliged by standard phone set-ups (McQueen, 2012). One of the countless other influences that are triggering this competition is the aptitude to provide 4G LTE web tools. This has hauled the rivalry to a completely innovative echelon with additional advantages for the consumer. By having multiple carriers provide the LTE service, costs have no choice but to go down in order for the carriers to remain competitive. Carriers formulate improvements to their products and service every day and this further prompts the data plans to obligate additional competitive costs and the aspiration to be the victor over the consumer.